Unit 3, Compendium 1

1. Nervous System

a) Two divisions of nervous system

b) 3 specific functions of nervous system

2. Neuron structure

a) Neurons

b) Axon

c) Dendrites

3. Types of neurons

a) Sensory

b) Motor

4. Nerve Impulse

a) Action Potential picture of nervous system http://www.humananatomyposters.com/^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

b) Resting Potential

c) Synapse

5. CNS components

a) Spinal cord

b) Brain

6. PNS

a) Somatic system

b) Autonomic system

7. Sensation

a) Visual cortex

b) Sensory cortex

c) Cutaneous receptors

d) Senses

1.Nervous system

a) 2 divisions- Central Nervous system (brain, spinal cord) and Peripheral Nervous System (nerves), are connected together and work with the CNS to send and receive information.

b) 3 specific functions are sensory input, integration of input from the body, and motor response.

2. Neuron structure

a) Neurons- Cells that transmit nerve impulses between parts of the nervous system. Neuralgia provide support and nourishment to the neurons.

b) Axon- Part of neuron that conducts nerve impulses. Also, known as a nerve fiber. picture of neuron http://www.nomoreadd.com/ >>>>>>>>>>>>>

c) Dendrites- Extensions that receive signals from sensory receptors or other neurons. These signals can result in nerve impulses conducted by the axon.

3. Types of Neurons

a) Sensory- takes nerve impulses from sensory receptor to the CNS.

b) Motor- Takes nerve impulses away from CNS to an effector, which in turn creates a mechanical response.

4. Nerve impulse

a) Action Potential- Rapid change in polarity across an axonal membrane as the nerve impulse occurs, in an "all or none" manner.

b) Resting Potential- The Axon is not conducting an impulse. This means that the inside of the neuron is more negative (polarity) than the outside of the neuron.

action potential and resting potential illustration http://static.howstuffworks.com/ >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

c) Synapse- Terminal are close to the Dendrite or cell body of a neuron. This is the point of communication between the two neurons that happens by the aid of neurotransmitters that are stored in the synaptic vesicles.

5. CNS components

a) Spinal cord- Center of reflex arcs that serve as a "highway" for all communications.

b) Brain- Computes impulses and determines the response.

6. PNS

a) Somatic system- Serves skin, skeletal, and tendons that receive information from an external sensory receptor. Then this information is transmitted to the CNS, then a motor command is sent from the CNS to skeletal muscles.

picture of parasympathetic nervous system. http://webanatomy.net/ >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

b) Autonomic system- Regulates activity of cardiac, smooth muscles, and glands. 2 components are sympathetic " fight or flight" and parasympathetic " feed and breed".

7. Sensation

a) Visual cortex

b) Sensory cortex

c) Cutaneous receptors

d) Senses in the head allow for taste, smell, vision, hearing, and equilibrium.

references: ARIS, Mader book, Brady book, Leech lab

Unit 3, Lab 1

Leech Lab

This is a picture of the manipulator and the oscillope that show electrical stimulation of the neuron.

This is an ultra violet image of the neuron with dye showing the shape of the sensory neuron.

1. What is the electrode measuring? Transmembrane potential, also called membrane potential.

2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments? Relatively small number and the large size of the neurons have have made the leech popular with neurobiologists.

3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron? Sensory neurons send information from PNS to CNS. Motor neurons recive information from the CNS that produces a response.

4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain? Yes, because the leech has has neurons. Pain is a response to stimulation.

5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab? Producing an electrical response to the neuron and the dissection process.

6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab? I didn't find this lab confusing at all, it was fun!

Unit 2 eval

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? The 2 compendium's and the Major lab because i am starting to get the assignment process down.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? The 2 minor labs only because i found it very difficult and frustrating to get things over into the blogger for an unknown reason. I didn't have this problem in the last unit. 3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? I would go with a 'b" simply because i was rushed to get my work transcribed from paper over to the blogger. This is my own doing since it was my choice to go to Mexico for 4 days. Even though i had everything prepared for the blogger, i found my major lab very time consuming. I have no more trips planned until i am finished with summer school.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit? I will stay in the country until class is complete which will allow me to remain focused on this and my other on-line course.

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? The major lab and the online quizzes because i am familiar with our cardiovascular system.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? The minor lab #1. As a Paramedic, i understand that there are many variables that affect ones b/p, and i felt that the lab was only focusing on the 'broad" spectrum of hypertension so, i it was hard stay interested in that lab.


What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? The feedback posted on NING. You waste no time on clarifying issues no matter how small they may seem.

What about this unit surprised you the most? It was easier than i expected. Maybe it is because my bread and butter of a Paramedic is advanced cardiac life support.

Major Lab, Unit 2

This lab will evaluate the different metabolic rates between the body at rest, and the body after exercise. I will create a mean metabolic rate using vital signs(V/S) to show my body and it's metabolic rate and compare them against the metabolic rate after exercising.

I propose that while my body is at rest, my V/S's will be in the average range for my age, weight, and sex. With my body at rest, cellular metabolism is working at an average pace to maintain homeostasis. Since, the cells will produce minimal CO2, my V/S's will show normal ranges. However, when i perform exercises, the CO'2 will rise within my body. This will cause an increase in Respiration's, pulse, and blood pressures because my body will increase the metabolic rate, which in turn, an increase in V/S's. The reason this happens, is because our body, along with it's chemo receptors notice the increase in CO2. Our natural response is to increase our Cardiac output, that will increase our blood pressure, and ultimately increase our respiration's. This process allows for our body to begin the process of blowing off the CO2, while increasing the level of O2 that is needed to keep up with the demands of cellular metabolism under stress. With this in mind, i propose that my V/S's will all increase across the 'board" during activities 1 and 2. Activity three should not change my metabolic rate.

These are pictures of the 75 lb weight vest, b/p cuff, stethoscope, pad to record data, the bleachers i climbed with the weight vest on, the bike i rode for 3 miles, and the sidewalk i used to walk for 1 mile. All of these were used to assess my metabolic rate.

The materials that i used for gathering V/S's, was a stethoscope, B/P cuff, and an R.N. to collect my V/S's. The 3 methods i chose to compare the metabolic rate at rest was 1) a 75 lb weight vest that i wore while walking up bleachers for 5 minutes non stop, 2) a 3 mile bike ride, and 3) a 1 mile walk. I did not wear the weight vest for activities 2 and 3.

Above is the chart that shows the comparisons of the mean average of my metabolic rate's in four different scenarios. The metabolic rate increased the way that i suspected in all areas but 2. My diastolic pressure dropped below my resting rate after i completed the stair climbers. I did not expect that to happen. I believe that i had some serious vasodilation going on during this event that caused my after load to decrease. The second area that my hypothesis did not stand true was during a one mile walk. I suggested that i would not have a change in metabolic rate and i was wrong. My V/S's increased while walking even though i didn't feel that i was exerting my self. My V/S's were higher after the walk compared to my 3 mile bike ride? I suspect that this is due to the fact that my body doesn't have to work as hard to cover 3 miles on a bike compared to walking 1 mile.

I did not have any issues with collecting my data since i have the above mentioned equipment at home. I believe that if i had to go to a store and measure my V/S's, i would not be able to gather accurate data. I was unable to get pictures of me during the bike ride and walk because my wife had to watch the children who are to young to operate the camera. In all, my hypothesis was not totally wrong. I had a good idea of what to expect.

In conclusion, it is very obvious that our metabolic rate changes on demand. With chemo receptors, the body detects an increase in CO2. Then the body makes the necessary adjustments in an attempt to correct the problem. This is accomplished by increasing cardiac output, which causes our pressure to rise, and causing our respiratory rate to increase for the changes all because our cells kick into over drive and produce more CO2.

Ethical Essay 2

I have chosen to write an essay that encopasses the slow food concept. This movement is focused on moving away from the industrial and fast paced life that encompasses a destruction path to a cultures identity related to the choices offered by the industries of fast food. We are on a collision course of not having a "culture" derived meal. Instead, we can go to the major food chains that offer the same style and taste of prepared food as their competitors. We need to take a step back and re-discover our original food identity that has been lost to the major food industry.

The slow food movement provides us with the information needed to get back to our roots. This can be achieved by looking back at our ecoregion, so that we can learn how to celebrate culinary traditions and food.

Eating at a national chain may provide a variety of different styles of food and taste. However, these different varieties taste the same at the next national chain, so were is the true variety of taste? The national chains are deciding for us what to eat and how it shall taste! This is not a reflection of our ecoregion, but rather a reflection of what a big corporation decides what our ecoregion shall contain and taste like.

The same can be said about national chain supermarkets. You may find some items that are related to the local ecoregion, but you can purchase the same items at a store thousands of miles away. Were does the true variety actually exist?

So, where can we purchase foods that celebrate the local ecoregion? I have discovered that the local independent restaurants and farmers markets allow us to support and maintain the ecoregion. I know that these small owners are preserving the local heirloom varieties that include the local food system. I find it interesting that when i go to Mexico, there are many street vendors that sell local food and produce. I feel that the ecoregion there is very alive. The culture is preserved to this day because the pride of the culture is still very strong. Don't get me wrong in regards to my culture, i just feel that even though we have many choices to choose from in regards to menu items. However, do we truly have many choices? We need to rediscover our ecoregion, and quit allowing for the national chains to determine what our food should taste like. Picture of local market in Mexico>>>>>

Slow food usa website. www.slowfoodusa.org

Unit 2, Lab 1

State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
The problem that relates to age and gender has several variables to account for. Those would be weight issues for ped's. Younger people have weight factors that account for an elevated B/P. The older one gets, the weight, hx of hypertension, and lack of exercise play a larger role. With females, weight and high salt intake play a large roll.
Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
The younger you are the heart doesn't have to work as hard due to a smaller container. When you get older, hx, poor diet, lack of exercise cause your body to work harder to circulate blood, which in turn raises your B/P.
How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?
Collect a baseline, look at risk factors, and height to weight ratio will give me the evidence I need to understand what factors cause a change in B/P.
Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
I saw that weight, lack of exercise, and hx of hypertension play a huge role in b/b.
Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
Yes, Females have weight and hx of hypertension affect the pump greatly. Males have hypertension issues related to lack of exercise and hx of hypertension.
During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
Yes, I saw a weight and hx of hypertension as the common factor
List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
Hx of hypertension
What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Obesity and high salt diet with lack of exercise.

Unit 2, Lab 2

This chart was created after i logged everything i consumed during the day.

How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? I felt that this was healthy diet as far as the calorie count goes. The choices were decent and i didn't eat too much. Coming off a 3000 calorie a day diet from the Army, i have cut that down to 1/2 to 1/3 of the intake. I drink lots of water and i don't drink allot of soda. Since i am from the South, i will not give up my iced tea! I stay under 1500 calories a day with plenty of exercise to reduce my chances of getting ill. I consider this a balanced meal with no fried food and a limited red meat intake.

What would you change about this day's eating, if anything? I would add more fruit to this daily intake. I could limit the already small amount off BBQ sauce that i added to the grilled pork.

Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? I found it very help full. I was able to see that i did not balance my meals out real good. I was glad to see that i keep my calorie intake under control. However, i do not eat lunch, so there is room to change some choices allowing me to add a lunch, balance the food group out, and stay under 1200 calories a day. Nice eye opener

Compendium 2 Unit 2

drawing of person eating. http://www.uen.org/

Nutrition

1 Metabolism

a Nutrients

b Cardiovascular System

c Catabolism

d Anabolism

2 Glycolysis

a Mitochondrial Energy Production

b Insulin

c Type I Diabetes Mellitus

d Type II Diabetes Mellitus

e Endocrine System

3 Diet and Nutrition

a Homeostasis

b 4 food groups

1. Metabolism- All chemical reactions of the body.

a. Nutrients- Required substances for the body that is obtained by absorption in the Digestive track.

b. Cardiovascular system distributes O2 and nutrients to the cells in our body.

c. Catabolism- Breaks down organic molecules, releasing energy that can be used to synthesize ATP. Example: Carbohydrates are broken down into short carbon chains, triglycerides are split into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins are broken down to individual amino acids.

d. Anabolism- The synthesis of new organic molecules, involves the formation of new chemical bonds.

picture of wave that represents catabolism- breakdown of a large wave that produces energy in smaller particles, as it crashes on the surf. http://www.newsaboutall.com/

2. Glycolysis- The breakdown of pyruvic acid.

a. Mitochondrial Energy Production- Glycolysis gains 2 ATP molecules for the cell, with additional energy locked in the chemical bonds of pyruvic acid.

b. Insulin- Protein secreted by the pancreas into the blood. This facilitates the diffusion of glucose in cells. Alpha cells produce the hormone Glucagon and Beta cells secrete insulin. This regulates glucose concentrations. Conversion of glucose to ATP. http://www.uregon.edu/

c. Type I Diabetes Mellitus- Destruction of the Beta cells in the pancreas resulting in an insulin dependant medical condition since the pancreas no longer produces insulin. Without insulin, glucose can not enter the cell.

d. Type II Diabetes Mellitus- Adult on-set associated with over-weight people that have a moderate decline on of insulin production secondary to a poor diet.

e. Endocrine System plays an important roll with our digestive track. Diabetes is associated with an Endocrine disorder.

3. Diet and Nutrition

a. Homeostasis can only be maintained if the digestive track absorbs fluid, organic substrates, minerals, and vitamins at a rate that can keep up with the cellular demand.

b. 4 Food groups are : Milk and dairy, meat, vegetable and fruit, and bread and cereal. This is why we can not live on "sugar' alone. Picture of food group. http://www.drpbody.com/

references: Aris, Brady Book, Mader book

Compedium 1 Unit 2

This review will cover the following topics

1.Blood

a.Red Blood cell

2.Circulation

a.O2 and CO2 exchange

3.Immunity

a.White blood cell types and functions

b.Antibodies

c.Lymphocytes:T,B, and NK cells

d.Bacteria

e.Virus

4.HIV/AIDS

A. Phases of HIV and AIDS

1. Blood is is the primary transporter of our body that delivers oxygen and nutrients to our body. Blood then transports the waste generated (CO2), and other materials used by the body. Blood is a very complex solution that contains 55% plasma(mostly water and protein) and 45% cells and platelets. The red blood cell is the primary cell in this fluid. The red blood cell(RBC) does not have a nucleus. The RBC is built to facilitate Hemoglobin(Hb). The Hb is transported by the RBC because

O2 binds with the Hb in order to provide oxygen to our body. RBC's are produced at a rate of 3 million every second

2.Circulation is the bodies "mechanical" process of maintaining life by providing our cells with fresh O2, and by removing CO2. This is accomplished by providing the heart with oxygen via RBC's.

A. O2 , CO2 exchange is possible by a "route" the blood takes through our body. When we inhale/exhale, our body is getting rid of the CO2 created by our cells metabolism. Inhalation allows for our body to take on fresh O2. This exchange takes place at the alveoli, in our lungs. This is accomplished by diffusion. As the O2 enters the blood stream, the Hb binds with the RBC for transport. As the Arteries send blood away from the heart, the blood will pass into arterioles. The arterioles allow for the O2, to pass through a capillary bed. This is were the O2 is exchanged for CO2. The CO2 then passes through the venules which connects to the veins that route themselves to the superior or inferior vena cava. From there, the blood enters the right atrium to it's ultimate destination: the alveoli in the lungs. All of this is accomplished by the pressure from the heart beat. Sterling's Law and stroke volume play a big factor in cardiac output.

white blood cell http://www.abc.net.au/

3. Immunity and our blood. Our blood, through circulation, transports white blood cells(WBC's) that are used to protect homeostasis. There are three types of blood white cells that i will be introducing.

A. WBC's (Leukrocytes) are different from RBC's because they have a nucleus and can not transport Hg. Neutrophils, produced in bone marrow, are Phagocytic. They engulf pathogens(bacteria) or debris in tissues, they also release cytoxic enzymes. They contribute 50 to 70% of WBC's.

B. Basophils account for <1%>C. Monocytes, account for 2 to - 8% of circulating WBC's. These guy's enter tissue and engulf pathogens and debris.

D. Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the lymphatic system which is a specialized network that is distinct from the circulatory system. Also, circulating blood has 3 classes of lymphocytes: T cells, which attack foreign cells, B cell's, that secrete antibodies, and Natural killer (NK), responsible for immune system proper function and destruction of the body's own abnormal tissue cells.

E.Bacteria is a unicellular microorganism that is found everywhere. In our body, on our skin, and in the ground (just to name a few). Our body, with a healthy immune system, is able to keep the bacteria in line. Bacteria has great diversity, and the classification of bacteria can change quickly. Illness secondary to bacteria is treated with antibiotics compared to a virus that takes over a "host" cell.

virus>>>>>

www.science.nationalgeographic.com

F. Virus: A virus is a type of pathogenic microorganism that can cause colds, flu, and AIDS. A virus is not composed of cells, that is why it finds a "host". A virus will contain the genetic information needed to reproduce its self. HIV has its own RNA genome. Because a virus invades a host cell, it makes treatment with antibiotics pointless. When you become sick with the flu, for example, the medications you take only help in relieving the side effects of the virus. You have to let the virus "run"its course. aids virus

http://www.aids.gemzies.com/

4. HIV/AIDS is a pandemic that can found around the glob. HIV-1 Is the prevalent form of HIV that has no boundary. There are three phases to HIV

A. Acute phase: no apparent symptoms with a CD4T cell count that has not fallen below 500 cells per mm.

B. Chronic phase: Pt. has variety of symptoms and a CD4T cell count of 299-400 cells per mm.

C. Aids: Pt. is diagnosed with AIDS when their CD4T cell count is below 200 cells per mm. The pt. will begin to experience destruction from opportunistic diseases, not from HIV.

Although there is not a cure, people infected are able to live longer due to drug therapy. There are human trials that have the potential to produce an affective preventive vaccine.

References: Aris, Mader book, Brady A&P for emergency medicine, http://www.scienceclarified.com/, http://www.planedtank.net/

Self and Unit Evaluation

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?

I would have to go with the Lab's. The time placed for those reports was ALLOT!!! I was able to apply the knowledge that i received through research, and apply it to the labs. This was a very positive reinforcement of what the subject matter covered in unit 1.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? Compendium one and the ethical essay were my 2 areas that i did not feel to good about. I believe it is only because this was a new assignment process that i was not 100% sure on how to work it out. After the feed back that i receive, i will not only improve in these 2 areas but, i will be able to improve on the future assignments.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? I have to say that my overall grade for this unit should be a mid level B. I say this with some reserve since this is a new way to learn required material. I know that after the feedback, i will be better prepared for the 3 remaining units.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit? Improve my ethical essays. But, that is what i like about the peer feedback. I will be able to make adjustments and improve my work as i go along with the course.

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? The research and principal applications of the lab.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? The DNA portion of the class. I just couldn't get that "fuzzy" feeling regarding DNA. Simply put, it was a pain in the "butt". I was unable to get interested in that subject.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? The instructors input on my blog when i started up. That allowed me to know if i was going in the right direction since this teaching format is new to me.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? N/A for this first unit.

What about this unit surprised you the most? This unit runs parallel to the Paramedic A&P class i had. That was very surprising to me. This lets me know just how help full this class will be.

Unit 1 lab - Building a cell

This is a model of an animal cell. I used several different materials set into a stone to represent the primary areas of a cell. I also created a small replica of the DNA portion of the cell.

First, here is a list of the the parts and their function in a cell that is represented in the model.

1) Nucleus: Controls metabolism, stores and processes genetic information. Also controls protein synthesis.

2) Nucleolus: Synthesizes rRNA and assembles ribosomes subunits.

3) Mitochondria: Produces ATP(energy) used by the cell.

4) Lysosomes: Removes damaged organelles or pathogens within the cell.

5) Golgi apparatus: Stores, changes, and packages secretory products. Also forms lysosomes.

6) Smooth E.R.: Lack ribosomes, synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates.

7) Rough E.R.: Has ribosomes, synthesizes secretory proteins.

8) Vacuole: Found in most plant cells and some animal cells. Provides a variety of secretory, excretory, and storage functions.

9) Cilia: Membrane extension that assist in movement of materials over the surface.

DNA model

1) Chromosome: Organized structures of DNA and proteins in the cell

2) Telomere: Region of repetitive DNA at the end of the chromosome. This also protects the end of the chromosome from destruction

3) DNA: Nucleic acid that contains our genetic "Blueprint".

4) Base Pairs: 2 nucleotides on opposite DNA or RNA strands connected by hydrogen bonds. Pairing is the mRNA be recognized by anticodons on transfer RNA during protein translation.

5) RNA: The single stranded region of the DNA. RNA is transcribed from DNA by enzymes called RNA polymerases. mRNA carries information from DNA to ribosomes.

6) Protein Synthesis is divided into 1) transcription. This is the production of RNA from a single strand of DNA. This takes place within the nucleus. 2) Translation is the assembly of a protein by ribosomes via information carried by RNA. This takes place in the cytoplasm.

This lab project allowed me to understand the cell. Although small, is essential to life. The cell, through DNA and RNA can continue to reproduce 60-70 times during its life cycle. I also discovered that there is a possible link to Telomere's and Cancer. I enjoyed this lab because i was able to take information from the book and apply it "hands on".

reference: Brady Book for Emergency Care

Ethical Essay #1

Today's issue with cloning has provided many individuals with the thought of it's ethical implications. However, cloning has been around since the 1970's. The general public may not fully understand what cloning is. Through media hype, therapeutic cloning is the fore front of today's media due to the ethical and moral implications.
Therapeutic cloning is known by the more popular term " Embryo Cloning". The ethical issue here, is that human embryos are used in this type of research. The stem cell is harvested from the embryo in an attempt to understand human development. It is through this understanding, scientist can come up with a genetic treatment plan for fighting the disease process.
The problem with therapeutic cloning, is that, there are no simple "Black-White" answers. There hasn't been allot of success with this research. This raises the issue of taking a human embryo for the sake of science in a field that hasn't produced it's desired outcome.
If therapeutic cloning returns it's desired outcome, the chances of curing a disease greatly increases. We could cure Diabetes, Cancer, and so forth. This would be a giant step for civilization. On the flip side, at what point will a Human be cloned? Ever see the movie " The 6th Day"?
Therapeutic cloning provides us with the opportunity to improve mortality. If regulated, the benefits are great. On the flip-side, the potential to harm is great due to the low success rate of Therapeutics Cloning.

Lab 2 - Genetics

This lab demenstrates the role of genes and it's relations to inheritance.

Specific terms used during this lab:

1) Genotype: Genes of an individual for a particular trait or traits. This is represented clearly on the Punnett Square lab scenario 5. Here, the genotype for each heterozygous fly is listed Ll horizontally, and Ll vertically.

2) Phenotype: Visible expression of the genotype. In the dragon lab, we are challenged to create a carbon copy of a dragon. This is accomplished by changing the chromosomes in order to match traits. Alleles play a major role in this process.

3) Alleles: An alternative form of a gene having the same locus on a pair of chromosomes that affect the same trait. This is accomplished by in the dragon lab, using horns as an example, by changing the allele for that particular trait.

4) Crossing- over: This is accomplished during the prophase of Meiosis. This is when the chromatids held together by a centromere are no longer identical. This is where and recessive genes play a big role with the respect to the allele.

5) Dominate genotype is identified in the Punnett Square in scenario 5 as LL. Because this is a common gene shared by the parents, the individual has an allele designation LL. This is called a homozygous dominate genotype.

6) Recessive genotype, identified in the lab as ll. This means that the zygote has received 2 recessive alleles. This genotype is called called homozygous recessive.

This lab was a great tool to reinforce the affects of traits passed on by the "parents". I understand that during Meiosis, our genes are crossed matched by chromosomes, and that the alleles will affect our genetic outcome.

Compendium 2 Genitics

Francis Crick's first sketch of a DNA double helix.
Intro
1. Cell cycle and division
A) Cell Cycle
B) Cell Division
2. Mitosis
A) Prophase
B)Metaphase
C) Anaphase
D) Telophase
3. Role of DNA
A)DNA
B) mRNA
C) Amino Acid Cycle
4. Cellular basis of Cancer
A) Cancer function in the body
B) Nuclei of cancer
C) Life cycle of Cancer
D) Forms of Cancer
E) Causes of Cancer
F) Disease classification
5. Genitic Inheritance
A) Genotype
B) Phenotype
C) Allele's
Conclusion


This will be a short brief regarding Human Genetics. I will include info regarding Cell Division, Role of DNA, mRNA, Cellular basis of Cancer, and the Roles of Genes and Chromosomes in inheritance.

1. Cell cycle and division

A. The cell cycle has 2 parts: Inter phase is the time that the cell organelles carry normal functions. As the cell gets ready for division, it grows. Organelles double and the amount of chromatin doubles as DNA synthesis happens. Inter phase lasts for around 20 hours.

B. Cell division then begins as the second part of the cell cycle. There are 2 parts to this division:1, Mitosis(duplication division) and Cytokinesis.

2. Mitosis is the nuclear division of the cell. The nucleus will contain the same number and type of chromosomes as the old cell. This process usually takes around 4 hours. Their are 4 phases of Mitosis. A. Pro phase: Chromosomes coil up and are now condensed which make them visible. The nucleus disappears and centrosomes move to opposite ends.

picture of cell division

B. Meta phase: Characterized by a formed spindle and chromosomes with 2 sister chromatids aligned at the center of the spindle.

C. Ana phase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the spindle.

D. Telophase: Chromosomes become chromatin again, spindle disappears and a nucleus appears with it own region of DNA.

3. Role of DNA

A. DNA(Deoxyribonucleicacid), Is a double helix wound in a spiral strand. DNA replicates to pass on information to a daughter cells during Mitosis. This process transcribes information in order to make proteins. DNA provides the cell with a "blueprint" for synthesizing protein.

B. mRNA(messenger RNA) is a helper of DNA, however, RNA is only a single strand of genetic information. RNA is found in the nucleus and cytoplasm. mRNA carries the genetic information from the DNA to ribosomes in cytoplasm because this is where protein synthesis happens.

C. Amino Acid Sequence folds up into the protein, which it then works it "magic". Gene expression has 2 steps. 1: Transcription. This is when DNA is read to make RNA. 2: Translation: mRNA is then read to make protein in the cytoplasm. DNA Model>>>>




Cellular basis for Cancer

A. Cancer cells don't contribute to the body's normal function.

B. Cancer cells nuclei are elarged with abnormal amount of chromosomes.

C Cancer cells don't die, they keep dividing where as the normal cell will only divide 60-70 times during its life cycle. Cancer cell>>



D. Cancer cells form tumors. 1) Benign, which doesn't invade surrounding tissue. 2) Cancer in situ, which isn't encapsulated. That is why it can spread all over the body.

E. Causes of Cancer can come from Heredity, Environment, Carcinogens, and poor dietary choices.

F. One thing to remember, is that Cancer is a Genetic Disease.

5. Genetic Inheritance

A. Genotype is the genes of an individual.


Morgan's observation of sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in Drosophila led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes. >>>>>>>>>>>>

B. Phenotype provides individual characteristics such as blood type, hair color, and so on.


C. One-Trait crosses: A person has 2 alleles for every trait. A Gamet has 1 allele for every trait. Allele's are an alternative form of genes that has the same "locus" on a pair of chromosomes and that affects the same trait. Our second lab reinforces this information with the Punnet square. It is also important to know that some traits are controlled by allele's on the X chromosome that has nothing to do with gender.

Human Genetics is truly a large array of cells that continue it's battle to maintain Homeostasis. Our cells produce DNA which in return has a copy made via mRNA. It is through this process that every 60-70 cell divisions occur, carbon copies are made, and cellular reproduction is accomplished. We know that when this process is corrupted, we have cells that will continue to divide -CANCER. Genetic Inheritance shows us that with our Genotype, Phenotype, and Allele, we are able to reproduce features from our parents and ourselves, that we are able to pass on to our children.

Punnet Square
references; ARIS, Human BIO book, Brady book, internet pictures.